Cognition and Mood in Systemic Lupus Erythematosu
Evaluation and Pathogenesis
Corresponding Author
SUSAN D. DENBURG
McMaster University Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8N 3Z5
Address for correspondence: Susan D. Denburg, Ph.D., Department of Psychiatry HSC-3G54, McMaster University, 1200 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8N 3Z5. Tel: (905) 521–2100 ext 6619; fax: (905) 521–5083; e-mail: [email protected].
Address for correspondence: Ramona M. Carbotte, Ph.D., Department of Psychiatry HSC-3G33, McMaster University, 1200 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8N 3Z5. Tel: (905) 521–2100 ext 5984; fax: (905) 521–5083; e-mail: [email protected].
Address for correspondence: Judah A. Denburg, M.D., Department of Medicine HSC-3V46, McMaster University, 1200 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8N 3Z5. Tel: (905) 521-2100 ext 6714; fax: (905) 521-4971; e-mail: [email protected].
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
RAMONA M. CARBOTTE
McMaster University Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8N 3Z5
Address for correspondence: Susan D. Denburg, Ph.D., Department of Psychiatry HSC-3G54, McMaster University, 1200 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8N 3Z5. Tel: (905) 521–2100 ext 6619; fax: (905) 521–5083; e-mail: [email protected].
Address for correspondence: Ramona M. Carbotte, Ph.D., Department of Psychiatry HSC-3G33, McMaster University, 1200 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8N 3Z5. Tel: (905) 521–2100 ext 5984; fax: (905) 521–5083; e-mail: [email protected].
Address for correspondence: Judah A. Denburg, M.D., Department of Medicine HSC-3V46, McMaster University, 1200 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8N 3Z5. Tel: (905) 521-2100 ext 6714; fax: (905) 521-4971; e-mail: [email protected].
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
JUDAH A. DENBURG
McMaster University Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8N 3Z5
Address for correspondence: Susan D. Denburg, Ph.D., Department of Psychiatry HSC-3G54, McMaster University, 1200 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8N 3Z5. Tel: (905) 521–2100 ext 6619; fax: (905) 521–5083; e-mail: [email protected].
Address for correspondence: Ramona M. Carbotte, Ph.D., Department of Psychiatry HSC-3G33, McMaster University, 1200 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8N 3Z5. Tel: (905) 521–2100 ext 5984; fax: (905) 521–5083; e-mail: [email protected].
Address for correspondence: Judah A. Denburg, M.D., Department of Medicine HSC-3V46, McMaster University, 1200 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8N 3Z5. Tel: (905) 521-2100 ext 6714; fax: (905) 521-4971; e-mail: [email protected].
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
SUSAN D. DENBURG
McMaster University Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8N 3Z5
Address for correspondence: Susan D. Denburg, Ph.D., Department of Psychiatry HSC-3G54, McMaster University, 1200 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8N 3Z5. Tel: (905) 521–2100 ext 6619; fax: (905) 521–5083; e-mail: [email protected].
Address for correspondence: Ramona M. Carbotte, Ph.D., Department of Psychiatry HSC-3G33, McMaster University, 1200 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8N 3Z5. Tel: (905) 521–2100 ext 5984; fax: (905) 521–5083; e-mail: [email protected].
Address for correspondence: Judah A. Denburg, M.D., Department of Medicine HSC-3V46, McMaster University, 1200 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8N 3Z5. Tel: (905) 521-2100 ext 6714; fax: (905) 521-4971; e-mail: [email protected].
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
RAMONA M. CARBOTTE
McMaster University Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8N 3Z5
Address for correspondence: Susan D. Denburg, Ph.D., Department of Psychiatry HSC-3G54, McMaster University, 1200 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8N 3Z5. Tel: (905) 521–2100 ext 6619; fax: (905) 521–5083; e-mail: [email protected].
Address for correspondence: Ramona M. Carbotte, Ph.D., Department of Psychiatry HSC-3G33, McMaster University, 1200 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8N 3Z5. Tel: (905) 521–2100 ext 5984; fax: (905) 521–5083; e-mail: [email protected].
Address for correspondence: Judah A. Denburg, M.D., Department of Medicine HSC-3V46, McMaster University, 1200 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8N 3Z5. Tel: (905) 521-2100 ext 6714; fax: (905) 521-4971; e-mail: [email protected].
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
JUDAH A. DENBURG
McMaster University Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8N 3Z5
Address for correspondence: Susan D. Denburg, Ph.D., Department of Psychiatry HSC-3G54, McMaster University, 1200 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8N 3Z5. Tel: (905) 521–2100 ext 6619; fax: (905) 521–5083; e-mail: [email protected].
Address for correspondence: Ramona M. Carbotte, Ph.D., Department of Psychiatry HSC-3G33, McMaster University, 1200 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8N 3Z5. Tel: (905) 521–2100 ext 5984; fax: (905) 521–5083; e-mail: [email protected].
Address for correspondence: Judah A. Denburg, M.D., Department of Medicine HSC-3V46, McMaster University, 1200 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8N 3Z5. Tel: (905) 521-2100 ext 6714; fax: (905) 521-4971; e-mail: [email protected].
Search for more papers by this author
REFERENCES
- 1 Denburg, J. A., S. D. Denburg, R. M. Carbotte et al. 1995. Nervous system lupus: Pathogenesis and rationale for therapy. Scand. J. Rheumatol. 24: 263–273.
- 2 Bluestein, H. G. 1992. The central nervous system in systemic lupus erythematosus. In Systemic Lupus Erythematosus. R. G. Lahita, Ed.: 639–655. Churchill Livingstone. New York .
- 3 West, S. G. 1994. Neuropsychiatric lupus. Rheum. Dis. Clin. North Am. 20: 129–158.
- 4 Grant, I. & K. M. Adams. 1986. Neuropsychological Assessment of Neuropsychiatric Disorders. Oxford University Press. New York .
- 5 Carbotte, R. M., S. D. Denburg & J. A. Denburg. 1986. Prevalence of cognitive impairment in systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 174: 357–364.
- 6 Denburg, S. D., R. M. Carbotte & J. A. Denburg. 1987. Cognitive impairment in systemic lupus erythematosus: A neuropsychological study of individual and group deficits. J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol. 9: 323–339.
- 7 Koffler, S. 1987. The role of neuropsychological testing in systemic lupus erythematosus. In Systemic Lupus Erythematosus. R. G. Lahita, Ed.: 847–853. Wiley. New York .
- 8 Kutner, K. C., H. M. Busch, T. Mahmood et al. 1988. Neuropsychological functioning in systemic lupus erythematosus. Neuropsychology 2: 119–126.
- 9 Papero, P. H., H. G. Bluestein, P. White et al. 1990. Neuropsychologic deficits and antineuronal antibodies in pediatric systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin. Exp. Rheumatol. 8: 417–424.
- 10 Wekking, E. M., J. C. Nossent, A. P. van Dam et al. 1991. Cognitive and emotional disturbances in systemic lupus erythematosus. Psychother. Psychosom. 55: 126–131.
- 11 Denburg, S. D., R. M. Carbotte & J. A. Denburg. 1992. Cognitive deficit in nonneuropsychiatric SLE (fact or fiction?) [abstract]. Arthritis Rheum. 35: S208.
- 12 Hay, E. M., D. Black, A. Huddy et al. 1992. Psychiatric disorder and cognitive impairment in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 35: 411–416.
- 13 Hanly, J. G., J. D. Fisk, G. Sherwood et al. 1992. Cognitive impairment in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Rheumatol. 19: 562–567.
- 14 Calabrese, L. V. & T. A. Stern. 1995. Neuropsychiatric manifestations of systemic lupus erythematosus. Psychosomatics 36: 344–359.
- 15 Wallace, D. J. & A. L. Metzger. 1993. Systemic lupus erythematosus and the nervous system. In Dubois' Lupus Erythematosus. D. J. Wallace & B. H. Hahn, Eds.: 370–385.
- 16 Gutierrez, R., J. H. Atkinson & I. Grant. 1993. Mild neurocognitive disorder: Needed addition to the nosology of cognitive impairment (organic mental) disorders. J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 5: 161–177.
- 17
Acker, M. B.
1986. Relationships between test scores and everyday life functioning. In
Clinical Neuropsychology of Intervention. B. P. Uzzell &
Y. Gross, Eds.: 85–117. Martinus Nijhoff Publishing.
Boston
.
10.1007/978-1-4613-2291-7_5 Google Scholar
- 18 Baird, A. D., G. G. Brown, K. M. Adams et al. 1987. Neuropsychological deficits and real-world dysfunction in cerebral revascularization candidates. J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol. 9: 407–422.
- 19 Hart, T. & M. E. Hayden. 1986. The ecological validity of neuropsychological assessment and remediation. In Clinical Neuropsychology of Intervention. B. P. Uzzell & Y. Gross, Eds.: 21–50. Martinus Nijhoff. Boston .
- 20 Rao, S. M., G. J. Leo, L. Ellington et al. 1991. Cognitive dysfunction in multiple sclerosis. II. Impact on employment and social functioning. Neurology 41: 692–696.
- 21 Lezak, M. D. 1995. Neuropsychological Assessment. Oxford University Press. New York .
- 22 Sohlberg, M. M. & C. A. Mateer. 1989. Introduction to Cognitive Rehabilitation. Theory and Practice. The Guilford Press. New York .
- 23 Walsh, K. W. 1978. Neuropsychology: A clinical approach. Churchill Livingstone. New York .
- 24 Spreen, O. & E. Strauss. 1991. A Compendium of Neuropsychological Tests: Administration, Norms, and Commentary. Oxford University Press. New York .
- 25 Gordon, H. W. 1986. The cognitive laterality battery: Tests of specialized cognitive function. Int. J. Neurosci 29: 223–244.
- 26 Denburg, S. D. 1994. Cognitive dysfunction in patients with SLE: The research and clinical challenge. Invited address to the Behavioral Rheumatology study group, Annual Meeting of the ACR. Arthritis Rheum. 37(suppl).
- 27 Carbotte, R. M., S. D. Denburg & J. A. Denburg. 1995. Cognitive deficit associated with rheumatic diseases: Neuropsychological perspectives. Arthritis Rheum. 38: 1363–1374.
- 28 Ling, M. H. M., P. H. Perry & M. T. Tsuang. 1981. Psychiatric side effects of corticosteroid therapy. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 38: 471–477.
- 29 Varney, N. R., B. Alexander & J. H. MacIndoe. 1984. Reversible steroid dementia in patients without steroid psychosis. Am. J. Psychiatry 141: 369–372.
- 30 Wolkowitz, O. M., V. I. Reus, H. Weingartner et al. 1990. Cognitive effects of corticosteroids. Am. J. Psychiatry 147: 1297–1303.
- 31 Newcomer, J. W., S. Craft, T. Hershey et al. 1994. Glucocorticoid-induced impairment in declarative memory performance in adult humans. J. Neurosci. 14: 2047–2053.
- 32 Sapolsky, R. M., L. C. Krey & B. S. McEwen. 1984. Stress down-regulates corticosterone receptors in a site-specific manner in the brain. Endocrinology 114: 287–292.
- 33 Woolley, C. S., E. Gould & B. S. McEwen. 1990. Exposure to excess glucocorticoids alters dendritic morphology of adult hippocampal pyramidal neurons. Brain Res 531: 225–231.
- 34 Ginsburg, K. S., E. A. Wright, M. G. Larson et al. 1992. A controlled study of the prevalence of cognitive dysfunction in randomly selected patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 35: 776–782.
- 35 Carbotte, R. M., S. D. Denburg & J. A. Denburg. 1995. Cognitive dysfunction in systemic lupus erythematosus is independent of active disease. J. Rheumatol. 22: 863–867.
- 36 Kozora, E., L. L. Thompson, S. G. West et al. 1996. Analysis of cognitive and psychological deficits in systemic lupus erythematosus patients without overt central nervous system disease. Arthritis Rheum. 39: 2035–2045.
- 37 Sonies, B. C., J. H. Klippel, R. B. Gerber et al. 1982. Cognitive performance in systemic lupus erythematosus [abstract]. Arthritis Rheum. 25: S80.
- 38 Grafman, J., S. M. Rao & I. Litvan. 1990. Cognitive dysfunction in multiple sclerosis: Disorders of memory. In Neurobehavioral Aspects of Multiple Sclerosis. S. M. Rao, Ed.: 102–117. Oxford University Press. New York .
- 39 Hanly, J. G., J. D. Fisk, G. Sherwood et al. 1994. Clinical course of cognitive dysfunction in systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Rheumatol. 21: 1825–1831.
- 40 Denburg, S. D., R. M. Carbotte & J. A. Denburg. 1987. The effects of corticosteroids on neurocognitive functioning: A trend toward improvement [abstract]. Can. J. Psychol. 28: 132.
- 41 Farrell, M., B. Sakic, H. Szechtman et al. 1997. Effect of cyclophosphamide on leukocytic infiltration in the brain of MRL/lpr mice. Lupus 6: 268–274.
- 42 Sakic, B., H. Szechtman, S. D. Denburg et al. 1995. Immunosuppressive treatment prevents behavioral deficit in autoimmune MRL-lpr mice. Physiol & Behav. 58: 797–802.
- 43 Fisk, J. D., B. Eastwood, G. Sherwood et al. 1993. Patterns of cognitive impairment in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Br. J. Rheumatol. 32: 458–462.
- 44 Hanly, J. G., J. D. Fisk, E. Jones et al. 1990. Impaired memory retrieval in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) [abstract]. Arthritis Rheum. 33: S103.
- 45 Rummelt, J. K., W. L. Sobota, C. M. Brickman et al. 1991. Memory and motor scores discriminate systemic lupus (SLE) patients from matched controls [abstract]. J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol. 13: 59.
- 46 Ferstl, R., T. Niemann, G. Biehl et al. 1992. Neuropsychological impairment in autoimmune disease. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 22: 16–20.
- 47 Beers, S. R., L. Morrow, C. M. Ryan et al. 1996. The use of information processing measures to detect cognitive deficits in systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 2: 15–16.
- 48 Kerr, E. N., S. M. Edworthy, M. T. Samuels et al. 1994. Attentional capacity in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) [abstract]. Arthritis Rheum: 37: S178.
- 49 Waterloo, K., R. Omdal & S. I. Mellgren. 1995. Neuropsychological deficits in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) [abstract]. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 1: 331.
- 50 Holliday, S., R. Brey, G. Escalante et al. 1997. Neuropsychological functioning in SLE: Computer-assisted testing in a predominantly Hispanic sample [abstract]. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 3: 17.
- 51 Martin, E. M., D. L. Pitrak, K. J. Pursell et al. 1995. Delayed recognition memory span in HIV-1 infection. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 1: 575–580.
- 52 Martin, E. M., L. C. Robertson, H. E. Edelstein et al. 1992. Performance of patients with early HIV-1 infection on the stroop task. J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol. 14: 857–868.
- 53 Rao, S. M. 1995. Neuropsychology of multiple sclerosis. Curr. Opin. Neurol. 8: 216–220.
- 54 Kujala, P., R. Portin, A. Revonsuo et al. 1994. Automatic and controlled information processing in multiple sclerosis. Brain 117: 1115–1126.
- 55 Grafman, J., V. Schwartz, J. K. Dale et al . 1993. Analysis of neuropsychological functioning in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 56: 684–689.
- 56 Scheffers, M. K., R. Johnson, J. Grafman et al. 1992. Attention and short-term memory in chronic fatigue syndrome patients: An event-related potential analysis. Neurology 42: 1667–1675.
- 57 Peavy, G., D. Jacobs, D. P. Salmon et al. 1994. Verbal memory performance of patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection: Evidence of subcortical dysfunction. J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol. 16: 508–523.
- 58 Becker, J. T., R. Caldararo, O. L. Lopez et al. 1995. Qualitative features of the memory deficit associated with HIV infection and AIDS: Cross-validation of a discriminant function classification scheme. J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol. 17: 134–142.
- 59 Massman, P., D. C. Delis, N. Butters et al. 1992. The subcortical dysfunction hypothesis of memory deficits in depression: Neuropsychological validation in a subgroup of patients. J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol. 14: 687–706.
- 60
Delis, D. C.,
P. J. Massman,
N. Butters
et al.
1991. Profiles of demented and amnesic patients on the California Verbal Learning Test: Implications for the assessment of memory disorders. Psychol. Assessment: J. Consult. Clin. Psychol.
3: 19–26.
10.1037/1040-3590.3.1.19 Google Scholar
- 61 Ryan, L., C. M. Clark, H. Klonoff et al. 1993. Models of cognitive deficit and statistical hypotheses: Multiple sclerosis, an example. J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol. 15: 563–577.
- 62 Wekking, E. M., A. J. J. M. Vingerhoets, A. P. van Dam et al. 1991. Daily stressors and systemic lupus erythematosus: A longitudinal analysis. First findings. Psychother. Psychosom. 55: 108–113.
- 63 Adams, S. G., P. M. Dammers, T. L. Saia et al. 1994. Stress, depression, and anxiety predict average symptom severity and daily symptom fluctuation in systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Behav. Med. 17: 459–477.
- 64 Denburg, S. D., R. M. Carbotte & J. A. Denburg. 1997. Psychological aspects of SLE: Cognitive function, mood and self-report. J. Rheumatol. 24: 998–1003.
- 65 Von Feldt, J. M., B. Zeit, R. Bulbul et al. 1994. A new brief cognitive screen in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE): Correlation with formal neuropsychiatric testing [abstract]. Arthritis Rheum. 37: S178.
- 66 Rao, S. M., G. J. Leo, L. Bernardin et al. 1991. Cognitive dysfunction in multiple sclerosis. I. Frequency, patterns, and prediction. Neurology 41: 685–691.
- 67 Mapou, R. L. & J. Spector. 1995. Clinical Neuropsychological Assessment: A Cognitive Approach. Plenum Press. New York .
- 68 Denburg, J. A., R. M. Carbotte & S. D. Denburg. 1987. Neuronal antibodies and cognitive function in systemic lupus erythematosus. Neurology 37: 464–467.
- 69 Long, A. A., S. D. Denburg, R. M. Carbotte et al. 1990. Serum lymphocytotoxic antibodies and neurocognitive function in systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 49: 249–253.
- 70 Denburg, S. D., R. M. Carbotte, J. S. Ginsberg et al. 1997. The relationship of antiphospholipid antibodies to cognitive function in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 3: 388–398.
- 71 Hanly, J. G., S. Behmann, S. D. Denburg et al. 1989. The association between sequential changes in serum antineuronal antibodies and neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus. Postgrad. Med. J. 65: 622–627.
- 72 Hanly, J. G., N. M. Walsh, J. D. Fisk et al. 1993. Cognitive impairment and autoantibodies in systemic lupus erythematosus. Br. J. Rheumatol. 32: 291–296.
- 73 Denburg, S. D., R. M. Carbotte, A. A. Long et al. 1988. Neuropsychological correlates of serum lymphocytotoxic antibodies in systemic lupus erythematosus. Brain Behav. Immun. 2: 222–234.
- 74 Denburg, S. D., S. A. Behmann, R. M. Carbotte et al. 1994. Lymphocyte antigens in neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus: Relationship of lymphocyte antibody specificities to clinical disease. Arthritis Rheum. 37: 369–375.
- 75 Sakic, B., H. Szechtman, T. Braciak et al. 1997. Role of interleukin-6 in the reduced preference for sucrose in autoimmune mice. Brain Res. Bull. Accepted.
- 76 Merrill, J. E. & I. S. Chen. 1991. HIV-1, macrophages, glial cells, and cytokines in AIDS nervous system disease. FASEB J. 5: 2391–2397.
- 77 Perrella, O., P. B. Carrieri, D. Guarnaccia et al. 1992. Cerebrospinal fluid cytokines in AIDS dementia complex. J. Neural. 239: 387–388.
- 78
Forster, M. J. &
H. Lal. 1991. Autoimmunity and cognitive decline in aging and Alzheimer's disease. In
Psychoneuroimmunology. R. Ader,
D. L. Felten &
N. Cohen, Eds.: 709–748. Academic Press.
San Diego
.
10.1016/B978-0-12-043780-1.50032-4 Google Scholar
- 79 Campbell, I. L., C. A. Abraham, E. Masliah et al. 1993. Neurologic disease induced in transgenic mice by cerebral overexpression of interleukin 6. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90: 10061–10065.
- 80 Steffensen, S. C., I. L. Campbell & S. J. Henriksen. 1994. Site-specific hippocampal pathophysiology due to cerebral overexpression of interleukin-6 in transgenic mice. Brain Res. 652: 149–153.
- 81 McGeer, P. L., J. Rogers & E. G. McGeer. 1994. Neuroimmune mechanisms in Alzheimer disease pathogenesis. Alzheimer Dis. Assoc. Disord. 3: 149–158.
- 82 Aisen, P. S. & K. L. Davis. 1994. Inflammatory mechanisms in Alzheimer's disease: Implications for therapy. Am. J. Psychiatry 151: 1105–1113.
- 83 Patterson, P. H. 1995. Cytokines in Alzheimer's disease and multiple sclerosis. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 5: 642–646.
- 84
van Gorp, W. G.,
C. Hinkin,
P. Satz
et al.
1993. Subtypes of HIV-related neuropsychological functioning: A cluster analysis approach.
Neuropsychology
7: 62–72.
10.1037/0894-4105.7.1.62 Google Scholar
- 85 Hay, E. M., A. Huddy, D. Black et al. 1994. A prospective study of psychiatric disorder and cognitive function in systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 53: 298–303.
- 86
Grant, I.,
R. A. Olshen,
J. H. Atkinson
et al.
1993. Depressed mood does not explain neuropsychological deficits in HIV-infected persons.
Neuropsychology
7: 53–61.
10.1037/0894-4105.7.1.53 Google Scholar
- 87 Minden, S. L., E. J. Moes, J. Orav et al. 1990. Memory impairment in multiple sclerosis. J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol. 12: 566–586.
- 88 Denburg, S. D., R. M. Carbotte & J. A. Denburg. 1994. The role of memory impairment and neuronal antibody status in the prediction of neuropsychiatric SLE [abstract]. Arthritis Rheum. 37: S178.
- 89 American Psychiatric Association. 1994. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. American Psychiatric Association. Washington .
- 90 Fava, G. A., I. Pilowsky, A. Pierfederici et al. 1982. Depressive symptoms and abnormal illness behavior in general hospital patients. Gen. Hosp. Psychiatry 4: 171–178.
- 91 Rodin, G., J. Craven & C. Littlefield. 1991. Depression in the medically ill: An integrated approach. Brunner/Mazel. New York .
- 92 Kremer, J. M., R. I. Rynes, L. E. Bartholomew et al. 1981. Non-organic non-psychotic psychopathology (NONPP) in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Semin. Arthritis Rheum. 11: 182–189.
- 93 Liang, M. H., M. Rogers, M. Larson et al. 1984. The psychosocial impact of systemic lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 27: 13–19.
- 94 Shortall, E., D. Isenberg & S. P. Newman. 1995. Factors associated with mood and mood disorders in SLE. Lupus 4: 272–279.
- 95 Omdal, R., G. Husby & S. I. Mellgren. 1995. Mental health status in systemic lupus erythematosus. Scand. J. Rheumatol. 24: 142–145.
- 96 Beers, S. R., L. A. Morrow, M. C. Morgan et al. 1995. Cognitive function in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE): Relationship to mood state [abstract]. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 1: 137.
- 97 Krupp, L. B., D. M. Masur & L. D. Kaufman. 1993. Neurocognitive dysfunction in the eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome. Neurology 43: 931–936.
- 98 Iverson, G. L. & K. W. Anderson. 1994. The etiology of psychiatric symptoms in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Scand. J. Rheumatol. 23: 277–282.
- 99 Wekking, E. M. 1993. Psychiatric symptoms in systemic lupus erythematosus: An update. Psychosom. Med. 55: 219–228.
- 100 Perry, S. W. 1987. Psychiatric aspects of systemic lupus erythematosus. In Systemic Lupus Erythematosus. R. G. Lahita, Ed.: 821–846. Wiley. New York .
- 101 Mitchell, W. D. & T. L. Thompson. 1990. Psychiatric distress in systemic lupus erythematosus outpatients. Psychosomatics 31: 293–300.
- 102 Miguel, E. C., R. M. R. Pereira, C. A. de Braganca Pereira et al. 1994. Psychiatric manifestations of systemic lupus erythematosus: Clinical features, symptoms, and signs of central nervous system activity in 43 patients. Medicine (Baltimore) 73: 224–232.
- 103 Tan, E. M., A. S. Cohen, J. F. Fries et al. 1982. The 1982 revised criteria for the classification of systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 25: 1271–1277.
- 104 Utset, T. O., M. Golden, G. Siberry et al. 1994. Depressive symptoms in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: Association with central nervous system lupus and Sjögren's syndrome. J. Rheumatol. 21: 2039–2045.
- 105 Schneebaum, A. B., J. D. Singleton, S. G. West et al. 1991. Association of psychiatric manifestations with antibodies to ribosomal P proteins in systemic lupus erythematosus. Am. J. Med. 90: 54–62.
- 106 Lim, L., M. A. Ron, I. E. C. Ormerod et al. 1988. Psychiatric and neurological manifestations in systemic lupus erythematosus. Q. J. Med. 66: 27–38.
- 107 Denburg, S., J. Brasch, R. Carbotte et al. 1996. Depression in systemic lupus erythematosus—primary or coincidental? [abstract]. Abstr. Soc. Neurosci. 22: 237.